Shiao Y. Woo, MD, FACR

• Professor and Chairman
• Department of Radiation Oncology
• University of Louisville
• Louisville, Kentucky

Common adverse events occurring in the adult and pediatric patients taking guanfacine as adjunctive therapy pain treatment lexington ky buy trihexyphenidyl with a visa, at an incidence rate of 5 percent or higher and occurring at least twice as 217 often as placebo included: somnolence sports spine pain treatment center hartsdale ny buy trihexyphenidyl 2mg fast delivery, fatigue pain treatment center somerset ky discount trihexyphenidyl line, insomnia lower back pain quick treatment cheap trihexyphenidyl online american express, dizziness, and abdominal pain. Adverse events reported in additional clinical trials included: atrioventricular block, sinus arrhythmia, dyspepsia, stomach discomfort, vomiting, asthenia, chest pain, hypersensitivity, increased alanine amino transferase, increased weight, convulsion, agitation, anxiety, depression, 217 nightmare, increased urinary frequency, enuresis, asthma, hypertension, and pallor. In addition, 7 percent of patients taking guanfacine experienced hypotension 217 compared to 3 percent of the placebo group. Adverse events that were considered dose-related in patients taking guanfacine were hypotension, somnolence, sedation, abdominal pain, 216 dizziness, dry mouth, decreased blood pressure, decreased heart rate, and constipation. Based on these adverse events, it is not surprising that upon abrupt discontinuation of guanfacine, 216 pediatric patients experienced transient rebound increases in blood pressure and heart rate. Patients in the guanfacine group reported sedative effects more often than placebo (53% and 216 17% respectively). These sedative effects included somnolence, sedation, hypersomnia, 216 fatigue, lethargy, and asthenia. Increased psychiatric related adverse events also occurred more often in guanfacine treated patients including: irritability (5%), affective lability (4%), 216 aggression (1. Serious adverse events in these long-term studies included (n = 446): syncope (7), loss of consciousness possibly due to a syncopal episode (1), orthostatic hypotension (1), seizures (2), accidental medication overdoses (2) and intentional medication 216 overdose (1). According to the literature, the rate of syncope in pediatric populations requiring 216 medical attention have been estimated at 126 to 300 per 100,000 per year. Post-marketing studies reported that in 21,718 patients taking guanfacine 1 mg/day for 28 days experienced the following adverse events (more than 1% incidence): dry mouth, dizziness, 217 somnolence, fatigue, headache, and nausea. Additional adverse events reported less frequently include: edema, malaise, tremor, palpitations, tachycardia, paresthesias, vertigo, blurred vision, arthralgia, leg cramps, leg pain, myalgia, confusion, hallucinations, impotence, dyspnea, 217 alopecia, dermatitis, exfoliative dermatitis, pruritus, rash, and alterations in taste. In addition, syncope was reported in 10 guanfacine treated pediatric patients; which occurred after long 217 exposure to the medication. This 216 search uncovered 955 adverse events reported for 309 pediatric patients (age <17). The most commonly reported adverse events included: somnolence (22 events), drug ineffective (19), aggression (18), fatigue (15), weight increased (15), abnormal behavior (12), tic (12), nausea (11), anger (10), disturbance in attention (10), mania (10), sedation (10), agitation (9), condition 216 aggravated (9), insomnia (9), lethargy (9), vomiting (9), and weight decreased (9). Serious adverse events identified included: death (3), convulsion (18), loss of consciousness (7), depressed level of consciousness (4), stupor (3), cardiac arrest (2), cardiac failure (2), myocardial infarction (2), syncope (3), chest pain (4), aggression (18), abnormal behavior (12), tic (12), 106 attention disturbance (10), mania (10), agitation (9), hostility (8), irritability (7), mood swings 216 (7), psychomotor hyperactivity (7), and movement disorder (3). Common adverse events reported in these patients included: fatigue (35%), headache (33%), upper abdominal pain (32%), 216 irritability (23%), somnolence (19%), and insomnia (16%). Three of those were in studies of the Incredible Years program, and results were 138,158,159 158 inconsistent. Younger children also had better conduct problem outcomes compared with older (effect size: 0. A third study reported that child gender and maternal 159 education were significant effect moderators. Four studies of psychosocial interventions for disruptive behaviors in school-age children reported tests for mediation and moderation. Maternal Global psychiatric symptoms also demonstrated partial mediation and were more strongly related 100 to child outcomes in the Project Support group than in the comparison group. Three studies tested for potential mediation and moderation among the group of studies evaluating psychosocial interventions for teenagers with disruptive behaviors. Two studies indicated potential moderation of treatment effects by family functioning-related 106 172 variables. Taken together, there is some evidence that treatment outcomes may vary based on patient characteristics, but results are inconsistent likely due to heterogeneity across individual studies. Personality 102,159 120,169 traits such as difficult temperament in preschoolers and psychopathy in teenagers were identified as potential mediators or moderators. The one study that examined the impact of concomitant developmental disabilities in a small subsample of the overall study sample was 88 shown to weaken effectiveness of one intervention in school-age children. Studies examining potential mediation and moderation of treatment effect that examined interventions for teenagers with disruptive behaviors reported that psychopathy and family characteristics partially mediated / moderated treatment effect. Severity of disease at baseline may be an important mediator in treatment response. Of note, the baseline scores were low in almost half of the population of the study. Overall, 44 percent of participants had received prior treatment with stimulant medication. Both groups improved over the course of treatment with atomoxetine, but the effect of treatment was greater among the patients with a prior history of stimulant treatment (effect size: 0. Four studies examined the potentially moderating impact of dose and reported inconsistent 102,104,122,126 effects. Dose effect analyses suggest that the children of parents who 159 attended more training sessions showed more improvement. Eleven studies examined whether the effectiveness of interventions delivering a parent component, alone or in combination with other intervention components, was mediated by 87,119,120,122,125,129,130,146,158,170,219 changes in parenting practices, confidence, or stress. Intervention group changes in child conduct problems from baseline to post 119 treatment were mediated by changes in parenting practices and parent reported stress. One study reported that improved positive parenting skills and that reduced harsh and inconsistent parenting partially 122 mediated intervention effectiveness. One study reported that reduced harsh and inconsistent parenting skills partially mediated intervention effectiveness, but that improvements in positive 219 parenting skills did not. Two studies reported that improved positive parenting skills partially 125,130,166 mediated parent reported child disruptive behaviors. Effectiveness of Psychosocial Interventions Sixty-six studies examined the effectiveness of psychosocial interventions for children with disruptive behaviors. We categorized these studies broadly by age group as examining preschool (n = 23), school-age (n = 29), or teenage (n = 14) children, and according to whether the active treatment arm was an intervention that included only a child component (n = 2), only a parent component (n = 25), or was a multicomponent intervention (n = 39). Multicomponent interventions were defined as those that included two or more of a child component, parent component, or other component. Studies within each of these intervention categories were heterogeneous, although several well-known programs were most common. We included studies of interventions delivered in healthcare settings for children with a formal diagnosis of a disruptive behavior disorder or whose disruptive behaviors were assessed at or above a clinical cutoff on a well-validated measure of child disruptive behaviors. Thus, we excluded from our review studies of preventive or universal interventions, and interventions delivered in non-healthcare settings. These important interventions and populations may be appropriate for a separate review, but were beyond the scope of our review. We also excluded disruptive behaviors in the context of autism or other developmental disabilities. We also focused on parent reports of child disruptive behaviors because they were the most consistently reported outcome in the literature, because other outcomes of interest, especially functional outcomes such as school performance, were not consistently reported. Preschool Children Studies examining psychosocial interventions for preschool-age children had an active treatment arm that included only a parent component (n = 14) or were multicomponent interventions (n = 9). The five studies examining Triple P for preschool disruptive behaviors evaluated several different versions of Triple P against each other, a waitlist control group, and treatment as usual. Self-directed Triple P plus weekly phone 135 conferences was found to be more effective than self-directed Triple P alone, and self-directed Triple P plus 14 hours of skills training and partner support was more effective than self-directed 140 Triple P plus 10 hours of therapist-led skills training or self-directed Triple P alone. Although six other studies also examined interventions for preschoolers with disruptive behaviors, each examined a different individual intervention making it difficult to make general statements about these interventions. School-Age Children Seventeen of the 29 studies included in our review of psychosocial interventions for school age children with disruptive behaviors had an active treatment arm that was a multicomponent intervention. Eleven studies included only a parent component and one study included only a child component. Although the nurse-led version was associated with improvement in goal achievement and overall health, it was not associated with significantly more improvement in parent-reported child disruptive 113 behaviors than was enhanced usual care. Both the clinic and community-based versions of the intervention were associated with significant reductions in parent-report child disruptive behaviors. Only one study has been published for each of the remaining seven multicomponent interventions. It is difficult to make general statements about the other six studies because they are each of a different intervention. There was only one study including interventions with only a child component for school-age 132 children. As with the literature examining psychosocial interventions for preschool-age children, the literature on school-age children suggests that there is most support for multicomponent interventions that include a parent component.

Following a painful paroxysm there is usually a refractory period during which pain cannot be Diagnostic criteria: triggered pain treatment center of the bluegrass ky discount trihexyphenidyl 2mg online. Previously used terms: Diagnostic criteria: Atypical trigeminal neuralgia; trigeminal neuralgia type 2 joint and pain treatment center lompoc ca order trihexyphenidyl line. Concomitant continuous or near-continuous pain Comments: between attacks in the ipsilateral trigeminal Nerve root atrophy and/or displacement due to neuro distribution nerve pain treatment back buy trihexyphenidyl 2mg overnight delivery. When Comment: these anatomical changes are present midsouth pain treatment center cordova tn cheap trihexyphenidyl 2mg mastercard, the condition is Peripheral or central sensitization may account for the diagnosed as 4. The common site of compression is at the root entry zone, with compression by an artery more clearly asso 4. While the exact mechanisms of how atrophic changes in the trigeminal nerve contribute to the generation of Diagnostic criteria: pain, some evidence suggests that, when present preo peratively, they predict a good outcome following A. An underlying disease has been demonstrated that Classical trigeminal neuralgia without persistent back is known to be able to cause, and explain, the 2 ground pain. Recognized causes are tumour in the cerebellopon to pharmacotherapy (especially carbamazepine or tine angle, arteriovenous malformation and multiple oxcarbazepine). Recurrent paroxysms of unilateral facial pain ful lesion, or led to its discovery lling criteria for 4. Trigeminal neuralgia caused by an underlying disease other than those described above. Recognized causes are skull-base bone deformity, ted to multiple sclerosis beneEt less from pharmacologi connective tissue disease, arteriovenous malforma cal and surgical interventions than those with 4. Superimposed brief pain paroxysms may occur but these are not the predominant pain type. Recurrent paroxysms of unilateral pain fullling cri this combination is distinct from that of 4. There are clinically detectable paroxysmal or associated with concomitant contin somatosensory changes within the trigeminal distribu uous or near-continuous pain tion, and mechanical allodynia and cold hyperalgesia/ B. Allodynic areas may be much larger 1,2 rmed by adequate investigations than the punctate trigger zones present in 4. Classical trigeminal neuralgia are not fullled and the condition is considered A. Recurrent paroxysms of unilateral facial pain ful of cases, with the ophthalmic division being singled out lling criteria for 4. Ophthalmic zoster may be associated with third, Facial pain in the distribution of one or more branches fourth and sixth cranial nerve palsies. The primary pain is patients, occurring in about 10% of those usually continuous or near-continuous, and commonly with lymphoma and 25% of patients with Hodgkin described as burning, squeezing, aching or likened to disease. Description: Unilateral facial pain persisting or recurring for at least Description: 3 months in the distribution(s) of one or more branches Unilateral or bilateral facial or oral pain following and of the trigeminal nerve, with variable sensory changes, caused by trauma to the trigeminal nerve(s), with other caused by herpes zoster. Unilateral facial pain in the distribution(s) of a Diagnostic criteria: trigeminal nerve branch or nerve branches, persist ing or recurring for >3 months, and fullling criter A. Pain, in a neuroanatomically plausible area within ion C the distribution(s) of one or both trigeminal B. Herpes zoster has aected the same trigeminal nerve nerve(s), persisting or recurring for >3 months branch or branches and fullling criteria C and D C. Onset within 6 months after the injury was still active, but on occasion later, after the D. In such cases, pale or light signs in the same neuroanatomically plausible purple scars may be present as sequelae of the her distribution petic eruption. Comments: Despite its long-preferred name, postherpetic neuralgia Notes: is actually a neuropathy or neuronopathy: signicant pathoanatomical changes have been shown in the 1. Positive ndings in these investigations may the rst division of the trigeminal nerve is most provide important diagnostic hints at the source of commonly aected in 4. However, all clinical and diagnostic aspects neuralgia, but the second and third divisions can be of the pain need to be considered. The severity of nerve injuries may range from Typically, the pain of postherpetic neuralgia is mild to severe. Also typically, such as local anaesthetic injections, root canal patients with postherpetic neuralgia show a clear sen therapies, extractions, oral surgery, dental sory decit and brush-evoked mechanical allodynia implants, orthognathic surgery and other invasive in the territory involved. Specically following radiation-induced postgan heightened responses to thermal and/or punctate glionic injury, neuropathic pain may appear after stimuli. Pain, in a neuroanatomically plausible area within positive somatosensory signs are not specic to the distribution(s) of one or both trigeminal neuropathy. Negative or positive somatosensory nerve(s), persisting or recurring for >3 months signs consistent with the distribution of the pain and fullling criteria C and D may be sucient to indicate the presence of a B. Pain has developed after onset of the presumed cau Comments: sative disorder, or has led to its discovery the structure and content of the diagnostic criteria for D. Somatosensory symptoms or signs may be negative sory changes, but in this condition there may be no clear. Trigeminal neuropathic pain may develop secondary to Neuroablative procedures for trigeminal neuralgia, multiple sclerosis, space-occupying lesion or systemic aimed at the trigeminal ganglion or nerve root, may disease, with only the clinical characteristics (quality result in neuropathic pain involving one or more tri of spontaneous pain, evoked pain and presence of sen geminal divisions and should be coded as 4. Patients will even tually develop bilateral sensory decits and continuous pain, which clarify the diagnosis. International Headache Society 2020 198 Cephalalgia 40(2) indicative of neural damage and persisting or recurring 3. In rare cases, attacks of pain are associated with vagal glossopharyngeal nerve symptoms such as cough, hoarseness or syncope 4. Some authors propose distin guishing between pharyngeal, otalgic and vagal sub Previously used term: forms of neuralgia, and have suggested using Vagoglossopharyngeal neuralgia. A disorder characterized by unilateral brief stabbing Clinical examination usually fails to show sensory pain, abrupt in onset and termination, in the distribu changes in the nerve distribution but, if mild sensory tions not only of the glossopharyngeal nerve but also of decits are encountered, they do not invalidate the the auricular and pharyngeal branches of the vagus diagnosis. Pain is experienced in the ear, base of the reex should prompt aetiological investigations. It is commonly provoked by swallowing, talking or sive, at least initially, to pharmacotherapy (especially coughing and may remit and relapse in the fashion of carbamazepine or oxcarbazepine). Unilateral continuous or near-continuous pain, with or without superimposed brief paroxysms, in the distribu Diagnostic criteria: tion of the glossopharyngeal nerve and caused by another identied disorder. An underlying disease has been demonstrated that 1 is known to be able to cause, and explain, the A. A disorder known to be able to cause glossophar 2 yngeal neuropathic pain has been diagnosed 1. Evidence of causation demonstrated by both of the sopharyngeal neuralgia caused by neck trauma, following: multiple sclerosis, tonsillar or regional tumours, 1. Tumours of the cerebellopontine angle and iatro compression nor an underlying disease known to genic injury during interventional procedures have be able to cause 4. In addition, pain is commonly perceived in the ipsilateral Diagnostic criteria: ear. The primary pain is usually continuous or near 1 continuous, and commonly described as burning or A. Unilateral continuous or near-continuous pain in squeezing, or likened to pins and needles. Brief parox the distribution of the glossopharyngeal nerve ysms may be superimposed but they are not the predo B. A prospective survey of 1052 patients with a view of: character of the attacks, 1. Brief paroxysms may be superimposed but are not onset, course, and character of pain. A prospective study of trigeminal nerve 1052 patients with a view of: precipitating factors, associated symptoms, objective psychiatric and neu Benoliel R, Svensson P, Evers S, et al. Headache Classification Committee of the Antonini G, Di Pasquale A, Cruccu G, et al. The resonance imaging contribution for diagnosing International Classification of Headache Disorders, symptomatic neurovascular contact in classical tri 3rd edition. Self-reports of pain and their association with the severity of compres related awakenings in persistent orofacial pain sion and clinical outcomes. Significance neuralgia: new classification and diagnostic grading of neurovascular contact in classical trigeminal neur for clinical practice and research.

You will need to dilute the sample to a low enough level that the sample can be accurately measured pain management utica mi purchase trihexyphenidyl 2mg otc. Too high a concentration will cause instability in the sedimentation elbow pain treatment bursitis discount trihexyphenidyl 2mg on-line, and loss of resolution pain medication for dogs after shots buy discount trihexyphenidyl on-line. The required dilution rate depends upon the average size of the distribution pain medication for dogs with lymphoma discount trihexyphenidyl 2mg visa, the refractive index of the particles, and the width (or dispersity) of the distribution. Very wide distributions, which contain a wide range of particle sizes, require less dilution than narrow distributions, because the particles will spread out during the analysis so that only a small fraction of the total weight of the sample is in the detector light beam at any moment. Materials with higher refractive index usually require more dilution than materials with lower refractive index, because they have higher turbidity at equal concentration. There must be some difference in refractive index between the particles and the density gradient fluid. If the refractive indexes are exactly the same, then the particles become "invisible", since with equal refractive index the particles will not scatter light. Fortunately, virtually all solid materials have a refractive index higher than most fluids. As a general guideline, samples with relatively dense particles (>2 g/ml) and a broad distribution, should be diluted so that the absorption does not pass about 0. Samples that consist of one or more narrow peaks will often go "off-scale", passing an absorption value of 0. If this happens, the sample should be diluted several fold, since the sedimentation may become unstable with such a high sample concentration. Coagulation During Sample Dilution When the sample is diluted, it is subjected to some "shock" from the dilution process. Some very sensitive materials (especially elastomer latexes and adhesives) may coagulate due to this shock. Samples that consist of hard particles are normally more resistant to this type of coagulation, unless their particle size is very small (<0. A sample can also coagulate if it is cationically stabilized (positively charged particles) and the dilution fluid contains an anionic emulsifier. It this case, the emulsifier used in the dilution fluid and in the density gradient fluids must be changed to a cationic type of emulsifier to avoid coagulation. It is normally possible to see when a sample has coagulated during dilution based upon its appearance. If there are large particles or floc particles, or if the sample appears to be at all inhomogeneous, then the sample may be partially coagulated. Add an excess of emulsifier to the concentrated sample before attempting to dilute it. Dilute the sample in two steps: first about 1:5 in distilled water that contains about 0. Lowering the concentration of the sample before mixing with the dilution fluid reduces the chance of coagulation. If you are ever unsure of whether or not a sample has been partly coagulated, you can try one of the above techniques, and run particle size distributions using both the normal preparation and the special preparation. If the particle size distribution is the same for both preparations, then coagulation probably did not occur. If the particle size distribution is significantly different using different sample preparation techniques, then the sample has at least partially coagulated during sample preparation. The information is presented for people who want to have a more complete understanding of how the Disc Centrifuge operates. Sedimentation under Stokes Conditions the rate of sedimentation inside the rotating disc is controlled by four factors: the size of the particles, the difference in density between the particles and the fluid through which they pass, the viscosity of the fluid, and the strength of the centrifugal field (rotational speed). The sedimentation of particles in a gravitational field was first systematically investigated by Sir G. Stokes showed that when particles settle in a gravitational field under a certain set of conditions, the forces acting on the particle are in perfect balance, and the particle moves at a constant velocity (which can be predicted) after a very brief period of initial acceleration. The particle must be smooth, spherical, and rigid enough to not deform due to the forces acting on it. The particle must be small compared to the container of fluid: the fluid must be essentially infinite in size compared to the size of the particle. The particles which make up the fluid (that is, the molecules) must be much smaller than the settling particle, so that the fluid is essentially homogeneous in how it acts on the particle. The settling speed must be slow enough that all viscous forces come from smooth (non-turbulent) flow. There are two fairly common situations where these conditions are not completely satisfied. Page 64 Non-Spherical Particles the requirement for smooth, spherical particles must be satisfied to get accurate absolute measurements of particle size. Non-spherical particles always settle at a rate which is lower than the rate for a sphere of the same weight, so non-spherical particles are reported as smaller than their correct size. All non-spherical particles can be measured to determine the "equivalent spherical diameter" distribution. While this distribution is not correct in an absolute sense, it does allow accurate comparisons of size for similar samples. So long as the shape of the particles does not change significantly from one sample to the next, the equivalent spherical diameter measurement will be a good representation of the relative particle size, and will allow accurate comparison of different samples. This makes the software calculate a light scattering function that is close to the correct scattering function for the particles. The non-sphericity index is equal to the average aspect ratio for the particle when viewed in all possible orientations. You should reduce the particle density in the procedure definition to compensate for slower than expected sedimentation. A reasonable adjustment is to reduce the density value for the particles according to the following empirical equation: Adjusted Den. In the case of cubic crystals with a density of 2, the adjusted density would be 1. If this density value is entered into the procedure definition, then the reported weight distribution will be very close to the correct weight distribution. The above adjustment works quite well for particles a with non-sphericity index up to 3. Rigid rods that are 5 6 times as long as they are wide have a non-sphericity index of about 3. Brownian Motion Broadening the requirement for a fluid which appears completely "homogeneous" compared to the size of the particle is not completely satisfied when the particle is small enough to exhibit "Brownian motion". Brownian motion is random, irregular motion of very small particles suspended in a liquid. It is caused by momentary unevenness in the impacts of fluid molecules on the surface of the particle. When particles are very small, there is a finite probability that, during a very brief time period, the net force on the particle from molecular impacts on one half of the surface will be greater than on the opposite half of the surface. Page 65 particle to briefly move (appears to "jump") in the direction of the net force. Significant Brownian motion only occurs for particles that are smaller than about 1-2 microns in diameter. Larger particles have enough surface area and enough total mass so that Brownian motion becomes negligible. The individual particles "diffuse" with time according to their size: large particles diffuse very little, small particles diffuse more. Inside the disc centrifuge, a narrow band of particles broadens during the sedimentation at a rate that depends on the particle size. Normally, the rate of diffusion (called the diffusion constant) is proportional to the inverse square root of the particle diameter. The table below shows the approximate diffusion distance in one second for particles suspended in a liquid with viscosity of 1 centipoise. Since Brownian motion is completely random (the second-to-second displacement can be in any direction), most of the motion of a particle cancels over time (sometimes up, sometimes down, sometimes left, sometimes right). The most probable location for a particle after a long diffusion time is its original location. In the disc centrifuge, a very narrow band of particles gradually broadens due to diffusion as the particles sediment, and the band assumes a Gaussian shape, but the center of the band always arrives at the detector beam at exactly the same time as it would had there been no Brownian motion.

I Have Built You an Exalted House: Temple Building in the Bible in Light of Mesopotamian and Northwest Semitic Writings pain medication for senior dogs buy trihexyphenidyl in united states online. Israel and the Jerusalem Temple in the Time of Two Kingdoms 527 Leonard-Fleckman chronic pain treatment guidelines canada discount 2mg trihexyphenidyl mastercard, Mahri advanced diagnostic pain treatment center order trihexyphenidyl 2mg amex. Rather acute chest pain treatment guidelines buy trihexyphenidyl online now, the meaning is that it might be prone to a higher degree of speculation and interpretation than natural sciences, as archaeology is like an experiment that cannot be repeated. In many cases, archaeological research encounters difficulties in its interpre tation of finds. Sometimes this is because vital information has been wiped out over time through decay or looting. Other times we are simply unable to date artifacts or architecture by typology due to lack of sufficient information. Other interpretive problems come from lack of clarity in delineating the boundaries of buried sites, understanding ancient technology, and so forth. When traditional methodologies cannot provide reasonable tools to solve cer tain questions, we need to apply techniques from other disciplines, including the hard sciences. Besides deciphering specific research questions, these tools can sometimes raise new research questions of which we were not previously aware, offering insights that would not have been revealed by the naked eye. The use of hard sciences as auxiliary tools for archaeological research is rel atively new, and the evolution of archaeology in this respect is only now coming out of its infancy, especially in Mediterranean archaeology. At the beginning, there were sporadic studies here and there, but these were not standard and had little effect on the general field of archaeology. The change began during the se cond half of the twentieth century, with the advent of radiocarbon dating. The utility of the technique opened the floodgates for numerous studies making use of other hard sciences in order to solve archaeological problems. Today the applica tion of at least some of the hard sciences in archaeological projects is considered standard. These studies generally come as a result of cooperation between archaeologists and natural scientists within the framework of an active archaeo logical project, either in the field or in the laboratory. Archaeologists are not themselves expected to master all these scientific methods or to be able to conduct the laboratory experiments on their own. Nevertheless, a basic fluency and under standing of the capabilities and limitations for each technique to enrich their studies is quickly becoming the gold standard. In what follows, we survey a sampling of the scientific methods used in cur rent archaeological research to give the readers a sense of how they work and what kind of knowledge can be gleaned from them. Selected general bibliography: Butzer 1982; Weiner 2010; Goldberg and Macphail 2006; Rapp and Hill 2006; Holliday 2004; Banning 2000; Brothwell and Pollard 2001; Rapp 2009. Relative dating is usually based on the stratigraphy, namely the inter and intra-relations between deposited layers and architectural features, and the relation between these to the other remains. When the finds are in good context and can be classified into groups that are related to specific periods, a typology can be established. The most common tool for relative dating in the historic periods is the typology of the ce ramic assemblage. After a sequence of strata has been compiled so that their relative dating is clear, the next step is to tie them to absolute dates if possible. The traditional ab solute dating is based on historical texts, ancient inscriptions that are found in sites, and the numismatic finds. In some cases, the absolute dating can be refined based on other types of evidence. For example, earthquake signs from a histori cally documented earthquake found in the architecture of a roughly dated stratum can give us more exact boundaries for its dating. Therefore, in the past, most absolute dating was necessarily limited to historic periods. This method is by far the most common dating technique in archaeological re 14 search. It is based on the radioactive decay of carbon 14 (C, radiocarbon), and was developed in the middle of the twentieth century by Willard F. To clarify the process of the radioactive decay, a very brief introduction to the structure of atoms is required. An atom is composed of a nucleus which in cludes electrically positive protons and neutral neutrons, surrounded by shells of negative electrons. The nature of the atom is determined by its protons and elec trons, but its mass is dependent in the number of the particles in its nucleus (that is, the number of protons and neutrons). Two atoms which have the same number of protons but have a different number of neutrons are isotopes (same nature but with different mass) of the same element. The most common is C (six protons and six neutrons), which comprise some 99 percent of all the carbon isotopes. Another stable 13 carbon isotope which is less common is C (six protons and seven neutrons), 14 which comprise about 1 percent of the carbon isotopes. Another isotope of C (six protons and eight neutrons) is relatively rare, only 1 part in a million millions 14 (that is, one in a trillion). C is constantly produced in the atmosphere, by colli 14 sions between neutrons from cosmic rays and nitrogen atoms (N, seven protons 14 and seven neutrons), in which a neutron takes the place of a proton, turning N 14 into the isotope C, which is unstable or radioactive. What this means is that after 14 14 some time the C particle decays to become N again. This happens when one of the neutrons in the nucleus breaks down into a proton and an electron, the latter of which is emitted from the atom. Usually, a radioactive decay is described by its half-life, which is the time period in which half the radioactive atoms will 14 decay. To exemplify what this means, if a charred olive pit contains 1000 atoms of 14 C at the time of the charring, 5730 years later it will contain only 500 atoms of 14 14 C, and after 11460 years only 250 atoms of C will remain. While the radioac 14 14 12 13 tive C atoms decay and become N atoms, the amounts of the stable C and C 532 Appendix: Survey of Scientific Methods in Archaeology atoms remain unchanged. This phenomenon is utilized for dating, by the meas urement of the initial ratios between the carbon isotopes in modern samples, and comparing the ratios to those in samples of unknown dates. The half-life time of 14 5730 years, along with the continuous formation of the C in the atmosphere, makes it appropriate for dating most archaeological cases. Herbivores receive their carbon through eating plants, and predators or omnivores from the meat of the herbivores they consume or, if they are young mammals, by nursing. There fore, all plants and animals have all the various carbon isotopes in their body with similar ratios to those in the atmosphere. To simplify things, let us assume (for now) that the ratios of the isotopes in the atmosphere are constant over the years, and that there is no mechanism with preference of intake for one isotope over the other. If so, all plants and animals have constant ratios of carbon isotopes in their body tissues. As long as they live, plants and animals constantly renew their carbon and the relative amounts of the various carbon isotopes remain the same. From the moment they die, however, the metabolism stops and the radiocarbon clock starts to tick, namely the unstable 14 C atoms decay without a renewal process. Organic materials such as charred plant remains are the preferred materials for dating. Inorganic materials, such as plaster and shells can be dated, but they are not preferred since they may have geologic carbon atoms and/or are prone to contaminations that are hard to get rid of. Bones are complicated as they contain inorganic and organic materials; assuming some organic material remains pre served in the bone, this is the required part for dating and it should be extracted 14 before the C analysis begins. First, good archaeological con text is important in order to date a site or a stratum. It is also important to consider what kind of information can be gleaned from the dating. Thus, wood timbers are no longer a popular choice, as they were in the past, since they might have been reused over many years and thus the results do not yield a firm date. The best practice, therefore, is to use short-lived organic materials such as twigs, seeds, parchment, hair, fabrics and bones. As organic material hardly ever survives in the Mediterranean climate for thousands of years, a particularly pop ular choice for dating in Judah is clusters of charred olive pits or other seeds. Radiocarbon dating used to be conducted by measurement of the radioactive decay activity using a Geiger counter, which counts the number of emitted elec trons per time unit and sample weight. This range is a (Gaussian or normal) distribution curve of a central date with error margins.

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